Wars+of+Religion

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 * Baroque Art- Wanted artists to go beyond the Renaissance focus on pleasing a small wealthy cultural elite. Baroque had to appeal to the senses and tough the souls of church goers while proclaiming the power and confidence of the reformed catholic church. Besides religious emotionalism in baroque you had to also sense drama and emotion.**


 * Bernini** - Bernini is an Italian sculptor and an architect who mostly worked in Rome. Bernini was also credited with creating the baroque style of sculpture.


 * Caravaggio**- An artist who combined realistic observation on the human state both physical and emotional, he used lighting to make his art dramatic and influenced the baroque school of painting.


 * Peter Paul Rubens** - A noted Baroque era painter whose paintings featured both Catholic themes and Roman mythology. He was also known for his paintings glorifying monarchs and nudes.


 * Treaty of Cateau-Cambresis 1559** - Treaty between Spain and France that ended the Habsburg-Valois wars. Spain was the victor, and subsequently gained dominance in Italy. The treaty did not, however, end the religious unrest in Europe.


 * Phillip II** - Husband of Mary I and the King of Spain and Portugal, he supported the counter reformation, also used the spanish armada to invade England


 * Dutch Revolt** - A revolt against the spanish authority for religious and political freedom. 1566-1579

A city in the Spanish Netherlands. Calvinists sacked thirty Catholic churches, destroying the religious images in them in a wave of iconoclasm, starting in Antwerp and then spreading to other areas.
 * Antwerp**-


 * William of Orange** - Ruler of the Netherlands, he led a revolt against Philip II and Spain. He started as an ambitious nobleman and turned into a rebel leader. He was named "father of the country" as he was a founder of a new, independent state of Dutch.


 * Spanish Netherlands** - Seventeen provinces which are called the low countries because they are below sea level.


 * Spanish Armada** - The fleet sent by Philip II of Spain in 1588 against England as a religious crusade against Protestantism. Both poor weather and the English fleet defeated it.


 * French Civil Wars**- 9 wars in the 16th century, the wars were between 3 noble families who wanted power after Henry II died.


 * Catherine de Medici** - Wife of Henry II of France, ruled as regent from her husbands death until shortly before hers. She was ineffective in solving the religious turmoil in France, at first making concessions to the Huguenots and then rescinding them later.

Admiral Gaspard de Coligny the king ordered the killing of the Huguenots in Paris that later spread outward to urban centres and the countryside. It marked the turning point in the French Wars of Religion because it crippled the Huguenot political movement.
 * St. Bartholomew Day Massacre**- The massacre started after 4 days after the wedding of the kings sister to the Henry III of Navarre. 2 days after the attempt killing of


 * War of the Three Henry’s** - Henry of Guise (sp?), protestant Henry of Navarre (IV), and Henry III (current King), caused by the St. Bartholomew Day Massacre, Henry of Navarre ends up taking over - he is a politique so he is able to be a moderate for both religions and save France, he recognizes Hugeonots but they are still not fully accepted. These were the last wars over religious differences between the catholics and protestants.


 * Henry IV** - King of France. He stabilized France so they stay at peace, lowered taxes and increased revenue. He controlled the nobles and reorganized the royal council bring in new nobles which is the nobility of the robe and put the old nobles into the nobility of the sword. Henry IV also laud down the foundations of absolutism. Also the first bourbon king, he converted to catholicism to gain the loyalty of france - "Paris is worth a mass"


 * Edict of Nantes** - Issued by Henry IV in 1598, this document gave religious freedoms to French Huguenots in 150 fortified cities. This document appeased the people and prevented a civil war within France.


 * Thirty Years War** - .The final religious war, between Catholics (the Catholic League) and Protestants (the Protestant Union). War broke out in central Europe after the faiths of certain areas began to shift, thus deteriorating the Peace of Augsburg. Neither side wanted the other to gain more land than it already had.


 * Bohemian Phase** - First phase of the Thirty Years War, characterized by a civil war in Bohemia between the Catholic League and the Protestant Union. In 1620 Catholic forces crush the Protestants at the battle of the White Mountain.


 * Danish phase** - Second phase of the war, in which Catholic armies led by Albert of Wallenstein scored fabulous victories, sweeping north into Pomerania. This is also the phase when the Edict of Restitution was issued.


 * Edict of Restitution** - .Document stating that all Catholic properties lost to Protestants since 1552 were to be reclaimed by the Catholics, and only Catholics and Lutherans could practice their faiths.


 * Swedish Phase** - Swedish king Gustavus Adolphus(able general) arrived in Germany and supported Protestanism. They won two important battles with help from the French before Adolphus gets fatally wounded. Cardinal Richelieu subsided the Swedes. The Swedish victories ended Hapsburg ambitions of unity of German staes under imperial rule.


 * French phase** - Richelieu declares war on Spain even though France is very Catholic because France doesn't want the Hapsburgs gaining too much power. Swedes, German Princes, Dutch, Scots, Finns, and German Mercinaries all ally against Spain. However the war drags on because no side has the resources to win a quick defeat.


 * Treaty of Westphalia** - .Ended the Thirty Years War, and officially recognized the many independent German princes, and gave them the ability to choose their religion.


 * Oliver Cromwell** - Was an English military and political leader and later Lord Protector of the Commonwealth of England, Scotland, and Ireland. Although this man was considered a great leader, his treatment and response to Ireland's rioting and uprising has come to be considered as genocide or near-genocide.


 * New Monarchs** - Are characterized as individuals who unified their respective nations, and creating stable and centralized government. Some example of these new monarchs included Charles VII of France, Louis IX of France, Henry VII of England. They all had success in limiting the power of the nobility, creating new taxation, maintaining a standing army, and fostering trade.


 * Louis XI**- One of the new monarchs. Ruled over France for many years. His most notable achievements as a monarch consisted of reorganizing Frances economy and dramatically weakening the power of the nobility.


 * Francis I** - King of France (1515-1547), tried two new devices to raise revenue to pay for the French Religious wars, 1. the sale of public offices 2. a treaty with the papacy


 * Taille** - a land tax, gave increased influence to lawyers and bankers, and strengthened royal finances. Remained the French Crowns chief source of income until the Revolution of 1789.


 * Concordat of Bologna, 1516** - Agreement between King Francis I of France and the Pope that outlined how much power the papacy could have in France. The Pope could collect all income from the Catholic church in France except for the first year of income of the clerical member. The French king also had the right to appoint bishops, archbishops, abbots, and priors.


 * Pragmatic Sanction of Bourges** - Issued in 1438 by King Charles VII of France. It created the General Church Council, whose authority was above that of the Pope in France. It limited the power of the papacy in France until it was superseded by the Concordat of Bologna in 1516.


 * Henry VII**- A new Monarch. His most significant contributions consist of ending the War of the Roses, brought England out of bankruptcy to prosperity, built up the royal navy, and unified England by preventing other political competitors from securing the throne, and also he kept the nobility under control.


 * Star Chamber** - The chamber was set up to ensure the fair enforcement of laws against prominent people who were so powerful ordinary courts would never convict them of their crimes. The court sessions were held in secret with no witnesses. Overtime the court evolved into a political weapon, a symbol of the misuse and abuse of power by the english monarchy and courts.


 * Ferdinand and Isabella** - these two got married in order to consolidate their power (Castille and Aragon). They developed the royal council of the middle class and got rid of the nobles in order to stomp out aristocracy in Spain. They also secured the right to appoint bishops in spain as well as hispanic territories in the Americas. They hated the Jews and Muslims and killed them or forced them to convert to catholicism - conversos. They led the inquisition: search for conversos who didnt really convert and were defined as heretics... used torture. Finally in 1492, they expelled all the Jews from Spain, which creates an economic downspiral longterm. They also created the hernamdades to enforce their new royal laws.


 * Reconquista** - the Iberian peninsula was taken from the Islamic kingdoms by the Christian kingdoms. The period of war and conquest lasted about a century long. It was mostly an attempt to unite Spain and expel Muslims and Jews.


 * Hermandades** - was a peacekeeping association of armed individuals who worked for the Spanish government to ensure that people were remaining faithful to the government and paying taxes typically. The "peacekeeping" wasnt very peacefull however. They used lots of brute force and terror in order to enforce the laws put in place by the king and queen. They had a huge amount of control.


 * Hapsburgs** - an important royal house that elected all of the Holy Roman Emperors. It expanded largely due to the monarch-consisting marriages with the house members, involving both the Austrian and Spanish Empires.


 * Holy Roman Empire**- The Catholic Church's power in Europe. It was kind of like a "king" in a sense. Controlled a lot of land, a lot of people, and had pretty significant political influence at times. The empire was possibly Europe's greatest state at the time. The heart of it stood in Germany where it was split between the states and the princes, who exceedingly tried to increase their power and land, but at the expense of the Emperor.


 * Commercial Revolution** - population increase of about 20 million people between 1500-1600, a lot more consumers and they now have more money to spend (leads to inflation because of increase in demand), Significance: poor conditions begin to improve, powerful nations emerge, rich upper class emerges, rise of Capitialism


 * “God, glory, gold”** - The three main motivations for overseas exploration. The first, God, represents the drive men have to spread their religion across the globe. The Jesuits were an example of men who were driven to exploration in an attempt to spread Christianity. Glory represents the pride and fame men would receive for exploration. Many explorers set off to be the first man to discover new lands, whether it be in Africa, or in the New World. The last and most influential motive for exploration was gold, which represents money. By searching for faster, safer, or more efficient trade routes, explorers were able to discover new markets, new natural resources, and new deposits of gold and silver, all of which brought great income for themselves and their countries. Political rulers who invested in exploration were greatly rewarded for their investments.


 * Age of Discovery** - technological and geographical advances, new inventions include magnetic compass to give directions and position at sea, astrolabe to determine latitude, gunpowder, compass, rudder, Age of Expansion, Age of Reconnaissance


 * Age of Expansion** - European explorers began overseas voyages that helped create the modern world. They wanted to spread Christianity, revive trade, and they all wanted Glory and Gold. Spain and Portugal led the way with Vasco de Gama and the conquistadors.


 * Age of Reconnaissance** - a period of cultural, financial, political, and commercial achievement that began in Italy with two stages (1050-1300) and (1300-1600). This period of change included movements of individualism, humanism, and secularism. There was a large emphasis on artistic achievement, led by Rome and Florence. Social change also happened with better focus on education and political thought.


 * Leaf Ericson** - Was a Norse explorer regarded as the first European to land in North America nearly 500 hundred years before Columbus.


 * Prince Henry the Navigator** - Supported the study of geography and navigation although he never went on an expedition. He sponsored annual expeditions down the western coast of Africa around the Cape of Good Hope. He thought that there was money to be made from explorations specifically in gold, sliver, and slaves. He really helped the Portugese develop their exploration.


 * Bartholomew Dias** - found cape of good hope (southern most tip of Africa); He discovered that it would be possible to make trip around Africa! he was not able to go because his men were starving


 * Vasco de Gama** - rounded the tip of Africa to get to India, goal was to gain a lucrative trade route to India to obtain spices and cloth, due to hostility their was trouble in later trips


 * Amerigo Vespucci**- A navigator, discovered America before Christopher Columbus and wrote a letter //Mundus Novus// which was the first document to describe America as a continent separate from Asia. Therefore America was named after him.


 * Christopher Columbus** - contradicted to be a brave explorer of America vs. cruel exploiter of Native Americans; very knowledgeable about the sea, very religious man, he thought he was a divine agent in charge of spreading Christianity, his first voyage was to find a direct route to Asia, his second voyage was when he forcibly took island of Hispaniola and enslaved its poeple, the whole time he made discoveries he thought he was in Asia or close to it! His thoughts were totally correct in his mind due to the technology he had. His view of the world was very skewed because it was based off of Ptolemy's geography, therefore the Americas were completely nonexistent. Columbus landed exactly where he planned, therefore he had no clue, his whole life that he had landed in central america.


 * Bartolome de las Casas** -Didn't like the brutality against indigenous people, and wanted to abolish the encombienda system(slavery). Writes the "Apologetic History of the Indies." Main goal is to Christianize, and he thought the Africans should be used for slaves instead of indigenous people.


 * Treaty of Tordesillas** - Pope Alexander VI initiated it because he wanted them not to fight over the land. Spain aquired everything to the west of an imaginary line while Portugal aquired everything to the East, basically Brazil. It was a way to appease Spain and Portugal over claims to land in the new world.


 * Ferdinand Magellan** -1519 Sailed southwest across Atlantic to South America, where he located the "Strait of Magellan" on the southernmost point of South America. His crew (He died before returning) successfully circumnavigated the globe. Unfortunately it took 3 years, so Spain gave up on a spice route to Asia.

“**Old Imperialism”** - just take over the coastal areas/ports, allows you to basically take over trade and also economic power in area. This was the opposite of what the new method of imperialism was, where the mother country would take over the entire portion of land that they intended to control.


 * “Golden Age of Spain”**- is a period of flourishing in arts and literature in Spain, coinciding with the political rise and decline of the Spanish Habsburg dynasty. This also involves the success surrounding their new world colonies. The raw resources coming from these colonies (silver) made Spain fabulously wealthy, and when the silver mines in the new world started to run dry, Spain fell into mountainous debt, and finally just collapsed which ended their golden age, and made them a second- tier country.


 * Dutch East India Company**- 1602-1798, Charted by the Netherlands States-General (assembly). It was organized to protect and control Dutch trade in the Indian Ocean, and also to help in the war against Spain and Portugal. Money was raised by selling shares.


 * Technological advances allowing** -faster more efficient trips over the Atlantic; able to plot locations on maps with latitude and longitude; also deadlier warfare with the introduction of gunpowder. Also new technology greatly increased the ability to sail to far off places. Such devices are the compass, the caravel, and the astrolabe, which greatly increased sailors chances of leaving and returning home safely.


 * exploration** - European Nations like Portugal and Spain started to question what else was out there in the world and played a huge part of the age of exploration. They traveled to the Americas and started to form colonies there, and started bringing goods back and forth between Europe and the new world.


 * Columbian Exchange** - The exchange of animals, plants, and diseases between the old world and the new world. Europe got an improved diet, increased wealth, rise of a global empire. However, when Columbus introduced sheep, dogs, pigs, chickens, goats, and cattle it negatively affected the American Indians living there by causing them to get diseases from the livestock since they had not built up immunity towards them.


 * Smallpox** - A disease brought to the New World from Europe during the Columbian exchange that killed off a large number of Native Americans because they were not immune to it. It is one of the reasons that the Columbian exchange is seen a disadvantage for the Americas.


 * Potato**- A food brought to Europe from the Americas in the Columbian exchange. It has a higher caloric yield than wheat, which was the primary crop of peasants previously. Peasants who started farming it experienced a markedly improvement in quality of life since they could get more food from their land.

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 * Witch hunts** - Common during the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. Often times if a misfotunate event happened (famine, mysterious deaths) it was blamed on witches. They thought that people, usually older and single women, were usually witches and they would burn them. Sometimes there would be a witch panic which lead to witch hunts, where they hunted down these supposed witches. It was really just a way for them to explain bad misfortune.