19th+Century+Urban+Society


 * Benthamite: -** philosophy by Jeremy Bentham, an action being good has a greater tendency to increase the augment the happiness of the community that to diminish it. Bentham believed in utilitarianism, which stated that social policies should provide the "greatest good for the greatest number"


 * miasmatic theory** - belief that people contract disease when they breathe the bad odors of decay and putrefying excrement, early reformers believed in this such as Chadwick; it wasn't true but led reformers to create sewage systems to clear away the bad odor, which decreased illness.


 * germ theory:** - disease was caused by the spread of living organisms and that it can be controlled; Louis Pasteur discovered this while brewing beer


 * pasteurization:** - heating something to suppress the growth of living organisms, or germs; discovered and named after Louis Pasteur. Used in beer, wine, and milk


 * labor aristocracy** - highly skilled workers of the working class, included factory foremen and construction bosses as well as handicraft workers whose work had not yet been replaced by factories, such as jewelers, printers, and bakers; 15% of the working class from 1850-1914; they earned twice as much as unskilled workers and were extremely proud of their achievement of rising through the ranks and lived by a strict moral code.


 * illegitimacy explosion** - period from the mid 18th to mid 19th century where a large number of illegitimate children were born. Although community controls were effective in rural areas, it was not so effective in the cities. because of this young boys in the cities usually had plenty of sexual experience by there late teens, and when said boys got their maid or servant pregnant, there were no community control to prevent the illeligitmacy


 * defense mechanism**:- Theorized by Sigmund Freud, defense mechanisms are subconscious thoughts or behaviors used to keep unconscious emotional needs from conscious awareness.


 * thermodynamics** - a branch of physics built on Newtons laws of mechanics that investigated the relationship between heat and mechanical energy. It stated that energy cannot be created or destroyed, and explained how the new technology worked.


 * organic chemistry:** - Chemistry regarding molecules or compounds containing carbon.a


 * Michael Faraday**: - English scientist who discovered that magnetism affected rays of light.


 * Dmitri Mendeleev**: - developed the periodic laws and the periodic table


 * positivist method** - The third and final stage of knowledge is science or the positivist method - Comte


 * Social Darwinism:** - the idea that the theory of biological evolution and human affairs were applied together. This saw the human race as driven by an unending economic struggle that would determine the survival of the fittest.


 * Realism- A literary movement that stressed the depiction of life as it actually was.**


 * antiseptic principle**: - Paper written by Joseph Lister in 1867 that talked about the use of antiseptics in surgery.


 * separate spheres** - Women and men were seperate, they had different duties while women had no basic rights or chances to gain jobs, they were to be in the home taking care of the family.


 * evolution** - the idea, applied by thinkers in many different fields, that stresses gradual change and continuous adjustment - Charles Darwin


 * urbanization** - the movement of people from the rural areas to the cities in search of better job opportunities and an escape from their poverty


 * Edwin Chadwick** - Created the miasmatic theory, which theorized that illness was transferred via bad smells. All though it was untrue his work was the start of investigating how disease spreed and lead to the discovery of germs. His work also lead to far better sanitation systems like underground plumbing.


 * “sanitary idea”** - Developed by Joseph Lister, it was the new practice of sanitizing and sterilizing wounds, instruments, hands, and anything else entering the operating room. This movement saved millions of lives as infection decreased dramatically.


 * Joseph Lister** - First to understand how airborne bacteria cause wound infections and disease. Developed the sanitation of medical equipment and processes.


 * Charles Darwin, //On the Origin of Species//** - all life has gradually evolved from a common ancestral origin. Survival of the fittest, the traits that kept organisms alive were passed along to the next generation of species.


 * Hebert Spencer, Social Darwinism** - Applied Darwin's ideas to humands, "survival of the fittest" this idea put the middle/upper class as the stronger ones in society and the poor/working class as the weaker ones in society. Because of this, Social Darwinism became very popular with the middle and upper classes.


 * Sigmund Freud** - Viennese founder of psychoanalysis. Freud focused on the social dynamics at work in a family. He concluded that sons are in conflict with their fathers for their mother's attention. The same is true between a daughter and a mother. He also said that our sub-conscious controls our daily decisions profoundly especially when it came to sexual relations.

-Theory of Relativity-Einstein's theory that stated gravity was the result of very massive objects such as planets warping a "space-tome" fabric that the universe is made up of. this explained gravity in a way that Newton could not.
 * Albert Einstein** - German scientist who made major advances in the field of astronomy and quantum physics. He is widely known for his theory of relativity, and is advances in the nuclear bomb during wwii.


 * Honoré de Balzac** - French, one of the first realist artists. Wrote //The Human Comedy// which contained nearly 100 stories about characters from all over french society and culture. His works were described as grasping, amoral, and brutal.


 * Leo Tolstoy** - Russian writer who combined realism in description and character with atypical moralizing. His most famous work is //War and Peace// which states human love, trust, and everyday family ties are life's enduring values. He also states in //War and Peace// that free will is an illusion.