Enlightenment+Scientific+Revolution

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[|European Enlightenment Glossary]

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historical changes in thought & belief, to changes in social & institutional organization, that unfolded in Europe between roughly 1550-1700; beginning with Nicholas Copernicus (1473-1543), who asserted a heliocentric (sun-centered) cosmos, it ended with Isaac Newton (1642-1727), who proposed universal laws and a Mechanical Universe.
 * Scientific Revolution**


 * Copernicus, heliocentric view-** he believed that the sun was the center of the universe, not the Earth which was the common belief of the time period. He wrote On the Revolution of the Heavenly Spheres but it was not published until the year he died. This talked about how everything moved in perfect circles and all the planets were encased in crystal spheres. He was attacked by religious leaders because they said his heliocentric view took away the spot for heaven on the model of the universe.


 * Tycho Brahe-** .built an observatory with money from the king of Denmark. He built another observatory in Prauge for the Holy Roman Emperor Rudolph II. Here he started the Rudolphine Tables of Planetary Motion. He gathered a lot of data on astronomy but made no sense of it since he was terrible at math. His main belief was that all the planets besides earth rotated around the sun, and everything rotated around Earth.


 * Johannes Kepler-** He was Brahe's assistant. He made sense of all the data Brahe gathered but couldnt make sense of. His main claim to fame is his 3 laws of Planetary motion. Basically, he proved that Copernicus's theory of a heliocentric univers was correct. He completed the Rudolphine Tables and experimented with optics and light refraction a little bit.


 * 3 Laws of planetary motion-** 1. The orbits of the planets are elliptical not circular. 2. The planets do not orbit the sun at universal speeds - the closer the planet is to the sun, the faster it goes and vice versa. 3. The time a planet takes to orbit the sun is related to its distance from the sun. SIGNIFICANCE: These laws proved Copernicus's theory of a Heliocentric universe correct. It freaked people out because it meant that the universe was HUGE.


 * Galileo-** Born in 1564, Galileo discovered the laws of motion and inertia by using the experimental method. He applied this method to astronomy with his new and revolutionary improvements on the invention, the telescope. However, after publishing his //Dialogue on the Two Chief World Systems,// Galileo was forced by the Inquisition to recant his views and was forced under house arrest until his death in 1642.


 * laws of inertia-** The statement that any object will remain at its current velocity unless acted on by another force. This goes agenst Aristotle who said that object's natural state was at rest because things stoped when you stoped pushing them. What he didn't know about was the existance of friction to stop things and hold them in place.
 * telescope-** Although Galileo did not invent the telescope, he made major improvements to it, which made it go from a very crude observational tool being able to magnify 3x, to being able to magnify 20X and being fairly accurate and popular for observation of the sky.


 * Francis Bacon-** advocated empirical, experimental research. The scientific method was based in part of his inductive experimenting, along with Descartes. His theory of inductive reaqsoning (empirecism) called for acquiring evidence through observtion and experimentation rather than reason and speculation--basically start with a theory then do experiments to prove theory.


 * empiricism- ** a theory that knowledge is gained primarily from experience, typically sensory. It has a large emphasis on evidence, especially in the field of science. It was created from many philosophers, but mainly attributed to John Locke and Francis Bacon.


 * inductive method-** Calls for acquiring evidence through observation and experimentation rather than reason and speculation. In this method, experiments are done in order to prove a broad idea (funnel)


 * Rene Descartes-** a French philosopher, mathematician, and scientist who stressed the principles of mathematics and deductive reasoning. His mathematical rationalism was a basis for the modern scientific method**.** He believed that that the universe could be divided into two categories; "mind" or "matter." He believed that everything was false until proven true, and famously stated, "I think; therefore, I am," pertaining to his theories of "mind" and "matter."


 * deductive reasoning-** in this method, experiments are done to weed out everything until there is a concrete answer (triangle). Descartes advocated for deductive reasoning, while Bacon advocated for incuctive reasoning. In deductive reasoning you start saying everything is false until proven.


 * //cogito ergo sum//** (“I think; therefore, I am”)- Descartes idea splitting all substances into "matter" or "mind." A form of deductive reasoning where everything is false until they can prove it true (rationalism). "Matter" you could prove, while "mind" was left to ideas such as "I think; therefore, I am."


 * Cartesian dualism-** This was the theory of Rene Descartes, that the universe could be divided into two categories. Those two were mind, or the spiritual aspect, and matter, the physical aspect.


 * scientific method-** the method of forming an hypothisis cunducting an expiriment and then using the data colected to either prove your hypotisis true or false.


 * Isaac Newton-** integrated the astronomy of Copernicus and Kepler with the physics details of Galileo in to his synthesis which contained a set of mathematical laws that explained mechanics and motion.


 * principle of universal gravitation-** the therory that every thing has gravity and every thing is attracted to every thing else. The size of this gravitational pull depends on the mass of the object and the distance between them.


 * //Principia,// 1687 : "Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy"- written by Newton; it was a knot between the scientific revolution and the new outlook on life people were discovering during this time period**


 * Royal Society-**


 * Enlightenment-** This is the term to describe the intellectual revolution that occurred over the course of the late seventeenth, to eighteenth centuries. Some key characteristics of the enlightenment include the importance of rationalism and reason, the ability to question things, the potential to surpass the greatness of antiquity, and human progress.


 * Deism-** Deism is a view towards god in which the individual believes that God created his universe, set it in motion, and let it be. God his very distant and acts as a "great clock maker" in this view. Strongly backed theory from Voltaire.


 * John Locke,** //**Two Treatises of Civil Government**-//


 * tabula rasa- ** "blank slate" this idea came from John Locke in the Essay Concerning Human Understanding. This was the first major text of the enlightenment. He said that all ideas came from experience; that people were born with a "blank slate" and their minds, ideas, opinions, memeories etc are developed based on their experiences in life. This is his idea of sensationalism: that all human thoughts and ideas are a result of sensory perceptions.


 * // philosophes- //** brought Enlightenment ideas to the public, bringing the Enlightenment to its greatest stage in France. They generally advocated religious tolerance, importance of natural science, progress of society, overall new world type views.


 * Voltaire- ** a philosophe who challenged traditional Catholic theology and had a belief in a distant God that let human affairs take their own course (Deism). He opposed many aspects such as legal injustice and unequal treatment under law, and religious intolerance. He did not believe that the lower class was equal to the upper class though. He believed that a good King is the best thing that the people can hope for because the people can't rule themselves. He was influenced by his longtime companion Madame du Chatelet.


 * Baron de Montesquieu,** //**Spirit of Laws** : was inspired by physical science, found in "Spirit of Laws". This is a comparative study on governments; worried about despotism. He explains how there are three types of government, a Monarchy, a Republic, and a Despotisim. Each has their own motive, Monarchy =loyalty, Republics=commerce, Despotisms=fear. //


 * checks and balances- A theory of Montesquieu that the branches of government should be divided in their power so that one group did not have all the power and this was to be kept in check by regulations in the branches so that they can not become unbalanced.**


 * Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778)-**


 * //Social Contract,// 1762 -** The idea that General will lies in the people and they hold soverign power but at times it falls into the far seeing minority for the good of the people. This concept has been abused by dictators throught time as a way for them to have absolute control.


 * General will-** The peoples say in government that gives them soverign power.


 * “noble savage**” - A native had the idea to be civilized like the Europeans, it created a sympathy for enslaved people.


 * Denis Diderot, //The Encyclopedia -//** a huge book containing all of the books and ideas and therorys of the philosphs and other enlightenment thinkers. The place of publishing and the sponsor of the book bounced around as governments accepted or rejected the books.


 * Wrote //On Crimes and Punishment// (1764)-**


 * Francois Quesnay** -

// **physiocrats**- Believed the wealth of nations came from land agriculture or natural resources. //


 * Adam Smith, Wealth of Nations (1727-1790)-** Adam Smith was a key figure in the Scottish enlightenment. He wrote //On The Wealth of Nations// in 1776, which was his work describing what he thought the governments role in the economy should be. In it he stressed the importance free competition, the "invisible hand", and a limited government role. This piece was very influential for future leaders in various countries when it came to the economy.


 * salon movement:** The salon movement was centered in France during the eighteenth century, and consisted of many upper class women holding basically intellectual house parties. These became very popular for various reasons. The first and most significant is that there was no censorship, the salons provided educated individuals an environment where they could discuss issues and debate freely about them. The second is because of the diversity in guest lists of these events, especially the famous salon hostess Madame Geoffrin. This caused very good diversity in thoughts, which made for good conversation. This movement also temporarily gave women influence on society, for example we see the Rococo style of art get ushered in for a short period of time due to the influence of women and the salons.


 * Mary Wollstonecraft** **(1759-1797): an educated woman from the enlightenment who fought for equality between men and women in education.**


 * Paul-Henri Thiry, Baron d'Holbach-**


 * David Hume**- agreed with Locke's teachings; he argued that the human mind is nothing but a bundle of impressions that originate only in sense experiences and our habits of joining these experiences together. He believed reason couldn't say anything about questions that can't be verified by sense experience, i.e existence of God.


 * Immanuel Kant- a professor in East Prussia, posed the question of the age in a pamphlet in 1784 entitle "What is Enlightenment?" Kant argued that if serious thinkers were granted freedom to exercise their reason publicly, enlightenment would surely follow. individuals musts obey laws.**


 * classical liberalism-** is a political ideology, a branch of liberalism which advocates civil liberties and political freedom with limited government under the rule of law and generally promotes a laissez-faire economic policy


 * German pietism-** was a movement within Lutheranism that lasted from the late 17th century to the mid-18th century, and later. It influenced Protestantism and Anabaptism. The pietist movement combined the lutheranism of the time reformed emphasis on individual piety and living a vigorous christian life.


 * Methodism**: a movement of Protestant Christianity represented by a number of denominations and organizations, claiming a total of approximately seventy million adherents worldwide.


 * John Wesley (1703- 1791**)- Christian theologian who preached in open-air sermons. Embraced Methodism in England.


 * Jansenis**:

a form of government in the 18th century in which absolute monarchs pursued legal, social, and educational reforms inspired by the
 * Enlightened Despotism**

Among the most prominent enlightened despots were [|Frederick II (the Great)][|Peter I (the Great)][|Catherine II (the Great)][|Maria Theresa][|Joseph II]They typically instituted administrative reform, religious toleration, and economic development but did not propose reforms that would undermine their sovereignty or disrupt the social order
 * Frederick the Great- (Frederick II)** - involved in War of Austrian Succession and the 7 years war; believed all citizens shoulld practice religion and philosophy as they wished; abolished torture, simplified laws, reconstructed agriculture and industry, judges are impartial, promoted schools and publishing; condemned serfdom but still practiced it; accepted and extended privaleges of the noblitity
 * War of Austrian Succession-**
 * Silesia**- disputed territory in the War of Austrian Succession, Austria allies with France and Russia to regain territory after loss to Prussia


 * Seven Years’ War- Maria Theresa formed an alliance with France and Russia; her aim was to conquer Prussia from Frederick and divide up the territory. The War made Frederick want to expand his territory. After the war ended, his government promoted the reconstruction of agriculture and industry throughout the destoryed country.**


 * “Diplomatic Revolution of 1756”-**


 * Treaty of Paris-**


 * “first servant of the state”-**


 * Catherine the Great- The enlightened ruler of Russia, she made many social reforms like freeing the surfs but later went back on her reforms after peasant rebellion. She helped finance many Enlightenment thinkers of the time like the writing of "Encyclopedia".**


 * Pugachev Rebellion-** Pugachev's rebellion was an uprising by the Cossacks in 1774-1775 led by Yemelyan Pugachev who proclaimed that he was the true tsar of Russia, and was a result of Catherine the Great confirming authority of Nobles over their peasants again, after Peter III had already extended serfdom. The significance of this event is that, even though it was eventually crushed my catherines forces, it put an end to all of her domestic reforms.


 * Polish partitions-**


 * liberum veto-**


 * Maria Theresa-** As heir to the austrian throne her dad set up treatys all over Europe that would ensure her rule as Queen. Nobody followed this after and she came to power she lost a lot of land right away. The biggest loss was Silesia to Prussia and with it half the population of the country


 * Pragmatic Sanction of 1713: Treaty which Charles VI convinced many European countries to sign before his death. The document stated that all countries would recognize his daughter Maria Theresa as the new ruler of Austria, and also stated that once signed, no countries could interfere with Austria. After Charles VI's death, almost simultaneously countries broke the treat and attacked Austria, leading to the War of Austrian Succession.**


 * Joseph II (1780-90)-** The son of Maria Theresa, he shared many of the same ideas as his mother and and tried some enlightened reforms but ultimatly failed. His succcessor was his brother Leopold II and he undid many of the reforms of Joseph and Maria Theresa